Some application layers have started to own the underlying infrastructure, partly because if they do not control the lower stack, retaining only the upper application layer could lead to incentive issues and high user adoption costs. On the other hand, as competition and technological advances continue to drive down infrastructure costs, the expenses associated with integrating applications/application chains with modular components have become much more affordable. Innovations in the execution layer, settlement layer, and aggregation layer are leading to higher efficiency, easier integration, stronger interoperability, and lower costs, ultimately delivering better applications for users and an improved development experience for developers.