Introduction to the Development of Omnichain Games in 2023#

Omnichain games made significant progress in 2023, increasingly capturing everyone’s attention. We attribute this to several factors:

1. Jump Crypto clarified the concept of omnichain games at the beginning of the year, distinguishing it from the GameFi subcategory and providing clear definitions for both.
2. The introduction of ECS architecture for game engines at the beginning of the year made it more convenient to build complex applications on-chain.
3. The emergence of Ticking Chain led to a qualitative leap in the logic frame refresh rate of full-chain games, expanding the types of games from turn-based to real-time strategy requiring high refresh rates.
4. AA wallets became popular in 2023, greatly improving the operational experience of omnichain games, eliminating the need for signing authorization for every on-chain operation.
5. ZK technology, with the widespread adoption of ZK-Rollup, experienced rapid development, helping omnichain games evolve from producing information-symmetric games to “asymmetric information games.”
6. The narrative of Autonomous Worlds began to spread from the geek community to the VC community, mainly attributed to two major industry events: the “Autonomous Worlds Hackathon” online hackathon held by ETHGlobal, 0xPARC, and Lattice in May, and the “Autonomous Worlds Assembly” offline conference in Istanbul in November.
7. Over a dozen omnichain games entered the testnet phase in 2023, demonstrating initial playability.
8. In 2023, blockchain infrastructure increasingly converged on Layer2, while the application layer, such as finance and social, lacked sufficient innovation. Therefore, the omnichain games track, aligned with “Crypto Native,” became a leader in the application layer narrative.

The following sections will elaborate on infrastructure, narrative logic, omnichain games, industry financing, and other aspects.

Infrastructure#

We believe the infrastructure of full-chain games includes game engines, Ticking Chain, information hiding systems based on ZKP, and AA accounts.

Game Engine#

A game engine is a software framework used for the development and creation of electronic games. It encompasses many core functionalities required for game development, typically including rendering engines, audio processing, physics simulation, and animation systems for traditional Web2 games. By utilizing a game engine, developers can focus on game design and creativity without the need to build the entire technical infrastructure from scratch. Game engines provide game developers with a fast and efficient tool to reduce development costs and time.

For games on the entire chain, there is also a need for a tool that can help developers quickly deploy game logic. This can not only shorten the development cycle, but also provide a unified data standard for subsequent iterative development and interoperability in the open ecosystem. If we regard the blockchain system as a distributed database, it is not easy to store and read game data efficiently in this distributed database, build large smart contracts, and synchronize with the front-end status in a timely manner. things. The omnichain game engine based on ECS architecture came into being.

ECS (Entity-Component-System) is essentially a modeling method of data structure, and its core lies in how to store and organize data.

1. Entity: In the ECS model, entity is an abstract concept. It does not directly hold data, but associates data through components. An entity can be viewed as a container for one or more components, and its main function is to provide a unique identifier for the component.
2. Component: Component is the carrier of data. In ECS mode, all data is encapsulated in components. Each component represents a specific attribute or behavior, such as position, speed, color, etc. Components only contain data and do not contain any logic or behavior.
3. System: The system is where data is processed. The system determines how to handle entities based on their components. Each system has one or more specific tasks, such as rendering, physics simulation, AI logic, etc.

It separates data (component) and behavior (system), making data storage and processing more flexible and efficient. The advantages of this architecture are:

• Composability: By combining different components, entities with various properties and behaviors can be created without the need to create a large number of classes or structures.
• Data locality: Because components only contain data, related data can be stored closely together, improving cache utilization and thus performance.
• Reusability: The system only cares about the data, not which entity the data comes from, so the same system can be reused across multiple entities.
• Parallelism: Due to the separation of data and behavior, parallel processing of data in a multi-threaded environment becomes easier. \
  While Jump Crypto (@jump_) has also proposed a game engine architecture called ARC (Action Registry Core), we consider this architecture to be merely a variant of the ECS (Entity-Component-System) architecture with numerous limitations. Therefore, the currently existing architectures claiming to be omnichain game engines predominantly adopt the ECS architecture.

MUD: Lattice (@latticexyz)’s MUD is the oldest and most renowned omnichain game engine in the Web3 space. In its initial first-generation version, it explicitly stated that MUDv1 was based on the ECS framework. Midway through the year, Lattice introduced the V2 version, bringing significant changes to the overall architecture of MUD. MUDv2 includes: Store (an on-chain database), World (an entry point framework providing standardized access control, upgrading, and modules), rapid development tools based on Foundry, client data storage that reflects on-chain state, and MODE (a Postgres database that allows SQL queries and reflects your on-chain state). At the end of the year, MUD introduced its independent Layer2 rollup (based on OP Stack), named Red Stone. Currently, MUD is only applicable to EVM-compatible chains.

Dojo: Currently, besides being written in Solidity, StarkNet’s Cairo is also a commonly used language in omnichain games. However, MUD is not well-compatible with Cairo. Therefore, the founders of two active projects in the StarkNet ecosystem, Realms and Briq, forked MUD and collaboratively developed the omnichain engine Dojo (@ohayo_dojo) based on Cairo.

World Engine: Argus (@ArgusLabs_) designed a shard Rollup framework specifically for omnichain games called World Engine. World Engine consists of two key parts. The first part is the core, comprising two critical elements: the EVM Base Shard, a sharded hybrid execution layer and sorter, and the Game Shard, a high-performance game engine with an execution layer. Additionally, there are peripheral components such as transaction relays and network code for client-server communication, and a ZK Cloud prover for ZK games like Dark Forest. In essence, World Engine also adopts the ECS architecture, comes with an EVM-compatible Layer2 chain, and enables efficient automatic “logic frame” refresh on the chain.

Keystone: Curio (@0xcurio) open-sourced Keystone in May, an L2 chain that incorporates a game tick and ECS omnichain game engine, built on OP Stack. This design, compared to ECS state written through smart contracts, allows all ECS operations (such as queries and state setting) to have faster performance. Through custom precompiles, smart contracts can access the underlying ECS chain state. Game logic can be written in Go language rather than Solidity, enabling large-scale parallelization.

Other chains have also introduced different omnichain game engines based on the ECS architecture, such as Obelisk (@0xObeliskLabs) based on the MOVE language and BOLT (@magicblock) based on Solana, among others.

Ticking Chain#

Traditional games are loop-based, as their core operating mechanism revolves around the game loop. The game loop is a continuously repeating process typically involving handling user input, updating game state, and rendering the game world. This loop persists during the game’s runtime, usually running tens to hundreds of times per second to maintain the smoothness of the game world. In this architecture, game systems such as physics engines and AI systems check and process the game entities and components they are concerned with in each iteration of the loop.

However, blockchain architecture is push-based. Blockchain is a distributed database that shares and stores information through nodes in the network. When a node generates a new transaction (such as a transfer or contract call), this transaction is pushed to the network, and other nodes, upon receiving it, verify and add it to the blockchain. This is a passive process; nodes do not actively seek out new transactions but rather wait for other nodes in the network to send new transactions. Therefore, blockchain architecture is referred to as push-based.

In traditional Web2 games, the execution of the game loop function, also known as a “logic frame,” can be integrated into the game backend server or set as a standalone “heartbeat server.” In omnichain games, the synchronization of logic frames generally employs “lazy update” and “manual ticking” for proactive game looping. The drawback of this approach is that the refresh rate of logic frames is relatively low, resulting in higher gas fees. @therealbytes has achieved efficient, automated logic frame synchronization by precompiling the loop function into chain nodes.

Representative examples of this approach are World Engine and Keystone. They have integrated the ticking chain functionality into the ECS architecture, significantly increasing the refresh rate of logic frames in omnichain games and expanding the range of themes that can be created in such games.

AA wallet#

Because every operation in omnichain games needs to be recorded on the blockchain, this brings significant inconvenience in terms of usability. It is impractical to expect users to sign and authorize every transaction. The previous solution to this challenge was the use of “Burner Wallets.”

A “Burner Wallet” is a temporary wallet generated for users when they visit a game website. The private key is stored locally in the browser cache, and each transaction is automatically authorized. However, this can only be seen as a temporary solution since the account disappears permanently if the user refreshes the browser cache. Additionally, it lacks sufficient security and privacy.

The introduction of AA (Abstracted Accounts) accounts has completely addressed this challenge. Currently, there are two types of accounts on Ethereum: External Owned Account (EOA), commonly known as a wallet account, consisting of a private key and a public key. EOAs need to authorize and pay gas for each transaction. The other type is a smart contract account, where various DApps deployed on Ethereum run as smart contracts.

There are two routes for account abstraction: compatibility with the EIP-4337 proposal and native account abstraction. Currently, Arbitrum, Polygon, Optimism, and BNB do not natively integrate account abstraction. They are mostly supported through products related to EIP-4337 (such as Biconomy, Stackup, etc.), and the infrastructure is still under development. In contrast, Starknet and zkSync support native account abstraction.

AA wallets can integrate Session keys into Paymasters. Users can pre-approve an omnichain game’s transactions based on a set of parameters, such as a specific duration, a maximum gas limit, a maximum transaction amount for a specific token, or a specific function in a particular contract. This enables a player-friendly experience, allowing uninterrupted gameplay without the need to sign and confirm every operation.

Another advancement is ERC-6551. It provides a smart contract account for all ERC-721 tokens. These accounts not only allow ERC-721 tokens to possess various assets like ERC-20, ERC-721, ERC-1155, etc., but also enable ERC-721 tokens to interact with various applications. In the context of omnichain games, this facilitates the simultaneous transfer of game assets and game IDs.

Information hiding on the chain based on ZKP#

“Fog of War” is a common mechanism in games, with typical examples found in games like StarCraft and Warcraft III. This design hides information by covering certain areas of the game map, revealing them only when players explore those areas. This mechanism increases the unpredictability of the game environment and is a typical characteristic of incomplete information games. Most popular MMO games employ incomplete information game mechanics, providing players with more space for exploration and strategic planning.

However, in blockchain technology, data is typically fully public and transparent, making it challenging to implement incomplete information mechanisms. Dark Forest, however, successfully creates an incomplete information game environment on the blockchain by using zero-knowledge proof technology, specifically zkSNARKs. This allows players to publicly submit verifiable valid actions while maintaining their privacy status. Thus, Dark Forest achieves an incomplete information game environment on the blockchain.

Yet, this complex information hiding method requires custom ZK circuit programming, preventing widespread implementation of extensive information hiding in full-chain games. That’s why, in 2023, almost all upcoming full-chain games lack the “Fog of War” feature. The market still needs a general-purpose ZK circuit capable of implementing the “Fog of War” function. Several teams are attempting to address this challenge, such as Zypher Games (@Zypher_Games), which introduced the zk-Game SDK. Through optimized wasm and precompiled contracts, it achieves high-performance, low-cost decentralized shuffling. Its on-chain randomness no longer relies on traditional VRF, ensuring decentralization for fair shuffling and gaming. The accompanying zero-knowledge game engine, UZKGE, features a highly optimized Plonk library, complementing a rapidly expanding Zero-Knowledge (ZK) circuit library. These circuits facilitate complex computations, ensuring the integrity of game mechanics while protecting player privacy. These encryption technologies enable game developers to verify crucial game data without revealing potential details.

In October, Flynn Calcutt from 0xPARC (@FlynnCalcutt) published an article, “ZK Hunt: an exploration into the unknown,” discussing how to utilize the “Commitment” method, ZK circuits, and token penalties to achieve various on-chain information hiding, offering new perspectives for creating asymmetrical information in omni games.

Narrative logic#

Shanav K Mehta and Dev Bharel of Jumpy Crypto published a series of articles called “Gaming Infrastructure” in January, proposing the classification of on-chain games, the specific definition of omnichain games, the benefits of making omnichain games, and ARC-based omnichain game engine architecture. At this point, games on the entire chain have become a deterministic track.

We now know that a simple definition is this:

A fully onchain game means that all game logic and status (assets and others) are on the chain and implemented through smart contracts. Sometimes, we also use the term “onchain game” to refer to it. In the literature on on-chain gaming, we often see terms like “Autonomous World” or equivalently “On-Chain Reality”.

But the concept of omnichain games is more of a technical discussion. The more popular narrative term currently is “Autonomous World”, which comes from Ludens of Lattic. He wrote a small paper in 2022 to explain his ideas, titled “Autonomous Worlds”.

In the article, Ludens believes that the autonomous world is a world with a “blockchain bottom layer”, that is, the autonomous world has strict narrative boundaries and formal introduction rules, and it does not require privileged individuals to maintain its existence.

This sentence describes three core characteristics of the “autonomous world”:

1. Hard narrative boundaries: This means that the world has a fixed and immutable set of baseline rules. They do not change with time or circumstances, providing a sense of stability to the world.
2. Formalized introduction rule: This indicates that there is a clear and fixed set of rules for entering and participating in the world. These rules include how to be part of the world and how to interact within it.
3. No privileged individuals are needed to sustain its existence: the world is self-sustaining and does not depend on any particular individual or organization for maintenance or management.
   In the concept of the Autonomous World, the world does not specifically refer to a place where humans live, but a container, a place that accommodates rules and narratives. Strictly speaking, the concepts of omnichain games and autonomous worlds are not completely equivalent. All autonomous worlds are omnichain games, but not all omnichain games are autonomous worlds. Omnichain games can have no permissions. As the earth expands, it becomes an autonomous world.

In addition to the narrative of the autonomous world, there is another relatively simple narrative to understand: the omnichain game is actually a “Decentralized Game”. This narrative mainly imitates the formulation of Decentralized Finance: since writing financial rules into smart contracts is called “DeFi”, then naturally writing game rules into smart contracts is called “DeGame”.

Full chain games#

In this year, many omnichain games have entered the testing stage. Although most of them are still rough, they have initially completed concept verification, showing a certain degree of playability and combination.

Sky Strife#

Sky Strife (@skystrifeHQ) is an omnichain real-time strategy game (RTS) built using the MUD engine. It’s made by Lattice’s in-house game designers and developers. The gameplay of Sky Strife is similar to other real-time strategy games. Taking the four-player map as an example, after the start, the four players are located in their respective main bases in the four corners of the map. Players’ goal is to compete for more resources to produce soldiers and ultimately eliminate other players. The resource in the game is Gold, expressed in grams. Players can consume Gold in the main base to produce units with different attack power and movement speed.

Sky Strife started a new round of public beta testing for Season 0 in November, and used a new Layer 2 expansion solution designed for omnichain games released by Lattice: Redstone.

Primodium#

Primodium (@primodiumgame) is a construction simulation game developed based on the MUD engine. The game’s mechanism is based on the famous business simulation game Factorio. In Primodium, you need to design and build different automatic production lines, combine conveyor belts, various factories, and natural resources on the map with each other to create your own automated production building complex and expand your empire on the planet. The industrial empire continues to produce increasingly complex industrial products. Game activities can be divided into collection, transportation, processing, construction, scientific research and combat. Players need to continuously collect resources, upgrade technology, build weapons, defeat other players, and ultimately dominate the planet in the game.

Cellula#

Cellula (@cellulalifegame) is an omnichain artificial life simulation game. Players can explore, cultivate, evolve and collect unique “lives” in the game. In this game, the rules of Conway’s Game of Life are seen as the genetic code of “living beings”, determining their form and vitality. By using the game’s crafting table, players can freely create various genetic sequences and breed their own “life” on the chain. These “life” have unique appearance and attributes, showing a variety of life forms.

The Ethereum block height acts as “time” in the game, and each “life” will grow and evolve in the Ethereum space-time ecosystem, just like aquatic creatures in the real world gradually adapt to land life and eventually become amphibians. However, the cycle of life is always accompanied by birth and death - when a “life” loses its vitality, it will die permanently on the chain to make room for the birth of a new “life”.

Loot Survivor#

Loot Survivor (@LootRealms) is a text dungeon adventure game based on Starknet’s Dojo. It is the first game in the Realms autonomous world ecosystem. It was developed by Loothero, a senior member of Bibliotheca DAO, and uses a unique Play2Die mechanism. The game is inspired by the backstory and gameplay of the original Loot Project community, with players battling beasts, clearing obstacles, collecting gear to survive, and competing for higher positions in the leaderboards.

Dark Frontier#

Dark Frontier (@DarkFrontierGG) is a remake of the famous omnichain game “Dark Forest”, with exactly the same gameplay. It is a remake of the famous omnichain game “Dark Forest”, and the gameplay is exactly the same. In Dark Frontier, each player controls his own planet and needs to collect resources on the planet, build bases and develop technology to improve his combat capabilities. Players can use resource production buildings, technological research, and weapons manufacturing facilities to gain an advantage in combat. As players fly through interstellar space, they need to discover other planets and resources through constant reconnaissance and exploration. When two players discover the same planet at the same time, they can choose to attack the planet or choose to escape. When attacking, players need to use their own weapons to attack the opponent’s base and seize the opponent’s resources.

The game was remade by Argus based on the World Engine. The screen UI has greatly improved compared to the first version. It launched a public beta in December.

There are more than a dozen other omnichain games in production or in very early testing stages, such as Gabby World, Infuence, Mississippi, Dope Wars, Mithraeum, Word3, PixeLAW, Shaoshin, Pirate Nation, etc., which will not be explained here.

Industry financing#

In the realm of blockchain gaming, a subsector known as “Omnichain Games,” the projects that secured public financing during the concept validation stage in 2023 were relatively few. Below is a brief introduction to these ventures:

1. Game engine Argus Labs completed a $10 million seed round, led by Haun Ventures. Other participants included Elad Gil, Balaji Srinivasan, Siqi Chen, Kevin Aluwi, Sunny Agarwal, Calvin Liu, Scott Moore, Robot Ventures, Anagram, and Dispersion Capital.
2. Game engine Curio Research secured $2.9 million in seed funding, with Bain Capital Crypto leading the investment. Participating in the round were TCG Crypto, Zonff Partners, Formless Capital, Smrti Lab, Robot Ventures, and several angel investors.
3. Game engine Paima Studios received a $1.4 million grant from Cardano. Paima’s code is available on Github, allowing the creation of blockchain games associated with NFTs, where the game state can be linked to NFTs.
4. Blockchain gaming startup Proof of Play, founded by Amitt Mahajan, co-founder of FarmVille, completed a $33 million seed round. a16z and Greenoaks jointly led the investment, with participation from Mercury, Firebase, Zynga, Alchemy, and individual investors such as Ravikant, Balaji Srinivasan, Twitch founders Justin Kan and Emmett Shear. Proof of Play aims to create engaging and user-friendly blockchain games, with its first title, “Pirate Nation,” a social role-playing game, releasing a beta version in December. Players can engage in battles, crafting, trading, and exploration, seeking digital tokens labeled PGLD.
5. Full Chain Game Citadel announced the completion of a $3.3 million seed round in November, with 1kx leading the investment. Other participants included Shima Capital, Hashed, Matchbox DAO, and Ready Player DAO.

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