Attestation is not a new concept, especially if you’re familiar with Ethereum’s Proof of Stake (PoS) consensus, where some steps are referred to as Attestation. Furthermore, projects like EAS, Smart Layer, EthSign, Verax, and PADO Labs also emphasize their protocol layer and the concept of Attestation. So, what exactly is Attestation, and how does it differ from Verification?

History and Definition of Attestation

Starting with etymology, Attestation originates from the mid-15th century, meaning “testimony” or “a declaration in support of a fact.” Verification’s origin is slightly earlier, meaning “confirmation” or “corroboration.” According to literature frequency statistics over the past two centuries, the usage frequency of Verification has gradually increased, while that of Attestation has declined. Moreover, the frequency of Verification is more than ten times that of Attestation, indicating that Attestation is a relatively niche term.

In the consensus process of Ethereum, an Attestation refers to a validator’s acknowledgment of the final state of the current block, similar to a voting process. Additionally, if a validator engages in malicious behavior (such as surround voting) or passively participates (or goes offline), they will be penalized by the consensus algorithm (slashing / Inactivity Leak). This implies that a validator’s participation in Attestation involves some subjectivity.

According to the dictionary of Cornell Law School, the meaning of Attestation is similar to “testimony,” usually requiring the presence of a witness during the signing of contracts, wills, or other written documents. The witness must also sign to attest to the authenticity of the document content and the signer’s authenticity. This process can also be summarized as “witnessing.”

Thus, based on the above information, Attestation is more akin to meanings such as “witnessing,” “testimony,” and “declaration,” where the Attestor’s acknowledgment involves a certain degree of subjectivity that cannot be verified by others through other methods. In contrast, Verification is more common, based on definite methods that can be repeatedly verified.

Understanding these distinctions allows us to grasp why so many projects use Attestation as a core concept to explain. It is not solving a technical or algorithmic problem but addressing a social consensus issue. It’s about how to let these attestable, declarable events be defined according to some standards, and then store this data on the blockchain, implement more composable logic through smart contracts, generate liquidity, etc.

In Web2 scenarios, attestation applications include:

• Account Verification : Verification of user accounts through email or phone number.

• Employment Proof : Provided by employers, it includes basic employee information, employment duration, and position, usually issued by the HR department.

• Educational Credentials : Official academic certificates issued by educational institutions, verified through platforms like the Academic Verification Network to confirm an individual has completed specific studies.

• Identity Verification : Government-issued identity documents, such as driver’s licenses and passports.

Web3 introduces a paradigm shift in attestation functionalities. Trust is no longer reliant on a single centralized entity but is distributed across a network composed of multiple nodes, safeguarding and ensuring the security and credibility of information through cryptographic technologies and consensus algorithms. In Web3, attestation applications include:

• Proof of Digital Asset Ownership : Generation of digital signatures on the blockchain to attest that a specific address owns a certain quantity or type of digital assets, like NFTs.

• Identity Verification : Obtaining individual identity verification through decentralized identity systems on the blockchain.

• Smart Contract Execution Proof : Smart contracts issue attestations to prove they have executed as expected, triggering certain conditions or events.

• Data Integrity and Provenance : Ensuring data integrity and immutability by generating digital signatures on the blockchain, where signatures are verified successfully only if the data remains unaltered.

The combination of Web3 and Web2 significantly expands the imagination space for attestation. Acting as a bridge between the digital and the real world, attestation can provide proof mechanisms in various scenarios such as verification, endorsement, voting, certification, and protection. Examples include:

• Event Tickets : Event organizers can issue blockchain-based attestation for tickets, preventing forgery or duplicate use.

• Attendance Proof : Using on-chain attestation not only to prove attendance at specific events but also to offer digital memorabilia.

• Email : Users can associate their identities across Web3 and Web2 using email attestation, simplifying the identity verification process.

• Medical Record Verification : Blockchain records patient health information, diagnosis, and treatment processes, with doctors generating digitally signed attestations to prove record integrity.

Noteworthy attestation concept projects include:

1. Ethereum Attestation Service (EAS) : A universal proof mechanism

EAS is an open-source infrastructure project for on-chain or off-chain attestation. It utilizes structured information’s digital signatures as a means to verify facts, prove authenticity, and establish trust in various online and on-chain interactions. EAS operates through two smart contracts: the Schema Registry Contract for registering proof schemas, and the Attestation Contract for managing the attestation lifecycle.

• Schema Registry Contract : Allows users to register proof templates, defining the structure and format of the proof data. Users define a schema, which is then registered with the contract. Once registered, the contract assigns a unique identifier (UID) to the schema for reference in future attestations.

• Attestation Contract : Manages the lifecycle of attestations. Users create attestations using previously registered templates, filling in specific content according to the defined format and digitally signing it on-chain or off-chain. This signed data, along with the schema’s UID, is submitted to the attestation contract. The contract verifies the signature and UID, and if validated, the attestation is recorded on the blockchain for anyone to verify its authenticity. Attestations can be revoked, not edited, rendering them no longer considered valid.

Attestations can be conducted on-chain, directly stored on the Ethereum blockchain for immutability and security, or off-chain, stored outside the blockchain in decentralized storage solutions like IPFS, for private sharing as needed.

1. Smart Layer: Identity Verification

Smart Layer is a programmable blockchain service network that supports token logic execution, enabling complex interactions with various systems and tokens in a decentralized, scalable, and secure manner. Utilizing TokenScript technology, Smart Layer has created the Executable Token. An Executable Token is an NFT or Token with built-in executable code, making it more than just a static digital asset; it can perform various functions.

In collaboration with the Ethereum Foundation Devcon team, Smart Layer developed ticket proofs based on Executable Tokens for 20,000 Ethereum builders participating in Devcon 6 Bogotá, EFDevconnect Amsterdam, and EDCON 2023 events. Those with event tickets could generate proof using the same email address to obtain a special pass called “Smart Pass,” earning additional Smart Layer Points.

1. EthSign: Contract Signing

EthSign is a blockchain-based document signing protocol designed to allow users to sign, encrypt, and permanently store documents in a decentralized, secure, and verifiable environment. It enables users from different blockchain systems to digitally sign and encrypt documents using their cryptographic keys. This means Bitcoin users can collaborate with Ethereum users and users from other blockchain ecosystems to execute contracts, among other things. EthSign utilizes the Arweave blockchain for permanent storage, requiring no fees from the users.

EthSign offers a variety of contract templates and operates similarly to DocuSign. Users can log in using their blockchain wallet, email, or Twitter account, supported by Particle Network’s web2 identity verification. Users can create a new contract through templates or upload an unsigned document, add signature and date fields or text content, fill in the signatory’s address or account, and choose a contract expiration date, after which signing is not possible. Considering document privacy, users can opt to encrypt documents and use EthSign’s contract password manager, leveraging asymmetric encryption to manage contract passwords without needing to remember them.

Additionally, EthSign provides contract verification, from initially allowing users to verify the original content of their completed documents against the copies on Arweave. Now, it also checks the validity of digital signatures and whether they were created by EthSign Certified signing addresses, with future support for offline verification planned.

EthSign aims to evolve from a contract signing application to a full-chain proof protocol, enabling content to be signed on-chain. For example, Coinbase Verifications already uses EAS to allow users to prove their KYC status on the Base network. If a user wants to prove their verified status through Coinbase to gain access to other projects, they can use Sign Protocol’s zkAttestations to capture data from Coinbase servers via a browser extension, and then generate an encrypted proof of verification.

1. Verax: Developer Tools

Verax is a shared on-chain proof registry designed to provide centralized storage for on-chain proofs and offer developers a universal, scalable tool to manage and utilize these proofs, which can verify an entity’s identity, ownership of digital assets, trust in a wallet, etc. These proofs can be used to build digital identities, trust systems, reputation protocols, and more.

One of Verax’s design goals is interoperability, aiding developers in issuing attestations compatible with other standards. It acts like a conduit, allowing different projects to store and retrieve on-chain proofs in this channel, and other protocols, dapps, or users can easily use and combine these proofs without worrying about compatibility issues between different standards.

1. PADO: Privacy Protection

PADO is a cryptography-based infrastructure designed to allow users to prove their off-chain data in a truthful and privacy-protected manner. For instance, it enables users to prove their veteran status in Web2 games to GameFi protocols without disclosing personal details. PADO’s uniqueness lies in its use of advanced cryptographic technologies, including MPC-TLS (Multi-Party Computation Transport Layer Security) and IZK (Interactive Zero-Knowledge Proofs), allowing provers to “blindly” prove data. This means the prover cannot see the original data, including both public and private user information, yet can still ensure the source of the transmitted data through cryptographic methods.

PADO achieves its objectives by ensuring two key security properties:

• Authenticity : By protecting the source of data, it ensures user data comes from a specific source and remains unchanged during sharing.

• Privacy : Adhering to the principle of data minimization when handling private information. During data computation, PADO uses zero-knowledge proofs to protect privacy, ensuring no original data is disclosed, including both public and private user information.

These projects have not yet issued tokens, and their economic models are still under consideration by the team. Interested parties can experience the product and look forward to potential future airdrops.

Future Prospects

As one of the most important narratives in the Web3 domain over the long term, RWA (Real World Assets) has received considerable attention from capital. Many well-known DeFi protocols, such as MakerDAO, Synthetix, and Compound, have started to venture into this field. The Boston Consulting Group estimates that by 2030, the RWA market could grow to $16 trillion. However, bringing off-chain assets onto the blockchain is a complex task that inevitably faces issues related to transparency audits, legal compliance, and regulation.

In this context, Attestation plays a significant role in promoting Mass Adoption. Attestation can verify the association between on-chain assets and actual off-chain assets, enhancing transparency and giving confidence to investors and participants. This not only meets compliance reviews and regulatory requirements but also helps to build trust between Web2 and Web3. Through Attestation, traditional financial institutions and businesses can more smoothly access the blockchain ecosystem, achieving seamless integration of digital assets.

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